Introduction

Article 1. Definition of Discrimination against Women

Article 2. Obligations to Eliminate Discrimination

Article 3. The Development and Advancement of Women

Article 4. Acceleration of Equality between Women and Men

Article 5. Sex Roles and Stereotyping

Article 6. Exploitation of Women

Article 7. Political and Public Life

Article 8. International Representation and Participation

Article 9. Nationality

Article 10. Education

Article 11. Employment

Article 12. Equality in Access to Health Care

Article 13. Social and Economic Benefits

Article 14. Rural Women

Article 15. Equality before the Law and Civil Matters

Article 16. Equality in Marriage and Family Law

Turkey submitted its second and third periodic report (CEDAW/C/TUR/2-3) to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women at its 318^th and 319^th meetings on 17 January 1997. Since then, much has happened globally as well as nationally in Turkey that cause for celebration as well as concern for the sustenance of the gender equality agenda and world peace in general.

In 1999, we celebrated the 20^th anniversary of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women - women’s bill of rights; the same year, the General Assembly adopted the Optional Protocol to CEDAW, thereby empowering the Committee to respond more proactively to systematic violations of women’s rights; in 2000, the international community conjoined to review and appraise progress made in the implementation of the Platform for Action and identified further actions and initiatives for the achievement of equality between women and men; the same year, the Security Council addressed the issue of women and peace, thus, placing gender agenda at the center of multilateral dialogue on issues of conflict prevention and peace building; in 2001 the Commission on the Status of Women adopted its new multi-year work programme, which outlines the priority areas for gender equality policy framework for the years 2002 to 2006; last but not least, in 2002 the General Assembly adopted the most welcomed resolution on “honour crimes”.

For Turkey, the period since 1997 is marked by milestone legal reforms that eliminate fundamental discriminatory provisions against women as well as other initiatives that contribute towards expanding the boundaries of equality and human rights of women. In 1997, compulsory basic education has been increased from five to eight years; in 1998, the law on domestic violence (Protection of the Family Law) was adopted; in 1999, the reservations to CEDAW were lifted; in 2002, after five years of long and hard work, the new Civil Code was adopted; in 2001, the parliament ratified the Optional Protocol to CEDAW; and within this enabling legislative environment, observance of CEDAW principles in combating violence against women, women’s poverty and economic exploitation, among others, have been included in the programme of the recently formed 58^th Government.

However, the progresses achieved at home and abroad are overshadowed by increased trends in political conservatism, the growing socio-economic disparities and the intensified conflicts world wide. Most striking, no doubt has been the unfortunate events of 11 September 2001 and the subsequent developments that continue to threaten the sustenance of constructive dialogue among the international community. In this regard, the joint EU-OIC Forum, which Turkey had the honour of hosting in Istanbul on 12-13 February 2002, is an example of a good practice towards keeping the dialogue open. It is essential that the dialogue continues to prevent the reversal of progress in civil liberties, universal human rights and international cooperation achieved thus far. It is well known by now that women’s rights are the first to be violated and sacrificed when repressive and anti-democratic environment prevails.

In the home front, Turkish society confronted grave challenges. Terror, which started in the mid-eighties and escalated during the first half of the 1990’s, finally became contained by the security forces by 1997. This enabled the state to immediately put into motion a vigorous programme for the socio-economic development of eastern provinces, where the destruction was heaviest. At the same time, the extraordinary security mechanisms implanted in the region to combat terrorism, is systematically being lifted to restore civil order. This allows for an enabling environment to put into practice effective policies and programmes to combat the multi-facetted problems women of the eastern regions encounter.

In 1999, another disaster struck Turkey. A devastating earthquake took a heavy toll in human life and property and shattered public consciousness, the effects of which are still quite alive today. Efforts to re-build the ruins became constrained by the recent economic crisis, which drastically increased the proportion of the population who are below the poverty line. While there are promising signs of economic recovery, at the time this report was being written, the possibility of a war in the region seemed to be yet another threat for Turkey as well as for the entire region.

The fourth and fifth combined periodic report of Turkey is prepared against such a background. Despite the vulnerabilities surrounding Turkey, state commitment to the principles of CEDAW and the Beijing Platform for Action (PfA) remained intact. Changes in governments did not result in a deviation from compliance with this commitment. The initiatives undertaken within the context of EU accession process has also complemented the efforts with regard to CEDAW and PfA commitments.

Turkey’s third and fourth combined report was prepared in a participatory manner, whereby integrating the contributions of relevant government institutions as well as academicians and the non-governmental organizations. The report aims to highlight achievements made vis-à-vis each article of the Convention since the last reporting. Inadequacies, particularly in implementation and persisting obstacles to change, are also identified. While there is much to celebrate in terms of achievements, women’s situation in Turkey, is far from the desired levels both in terms of basic development indicators as well as women’s participation in decision making and the more symbolic aspects of their representation in public space.

Women are still grossly underrepresented in the parliament, violence against women is still a social ill and allocation of resources, particularly the national budget, is still gender biased. This insufficiency in the budgetary distribution process is reflected in the limited human and financial resources available to the Directorate General for the Status and Problems of Women. Regrettably, the Directorate General continues to function without an organizational law, which is before the parliament awaiting consideration. There is still much to be done in strengthening the institutional capacity of the national machinery for the advancement of women and in eliminating discrimination against women in both the public and private spheres of life.

The Government of Turkey is appreciative of the efforts and the invaluable work of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and looks forward to a fruitful dialogue during the review of Turkey’s 3^rd and 4^thcombined report.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women was signed by the Government of Turkey in 1985 and ratified in 1986 with certain reservations, since Articles 15 (paragraphs 2 and 4) and 16 (paragraphs 1/c through 1/g) of the Convention were incompatible with the Family Law section of the Turkish Civil Code, particularly those pertaining to women’s legal capacity, such as; right to enter into contractual relationships; responsibilities concerning children; and choice of domicile, family name, work and job. These reservations were withdrawn on September 1999 in the light of the review and amendment of the Civil Code. The Optional Protocol to the Convention, which was signed on 8 September 2000, was ratified on 30 July 2002. The Protocol will go into force in January 2003. By adopting the Optional Protocol, Turkish Government has strongly confirmed its commitment to women’s advancement and full compliance with the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

2- The review process of the Turkish Civil Code took place between the years 1993 and 2001. The discriminatory clauses have been amended in compliance with the norm of non-discrimination, thus, bringing the Civil Code in line with the Convention. The new Civil Code was adopted by the Turkish Parliament on 22 November 2001 and came into effect on 1 January 2002. Additionally, in October 2001, Article 41 of the Constitution was amended to define the family as an entity that is “based on equality between the spouses”.

The Directorate General on the Status and Problems Women (DGSPW) took an active role in the long and difficult drafting process of the Civil Code and brought to the attention of the commission, mandated by the Ministry of Justice to draft the Civil Code, the issues that needed to be addressed, including the relevant suggestions of non-governmental organizations in order to eliminate discriminatory clauses and those that sustain discriminatory practices and restrict women’s enjoyment of their fundamental rights and freedoms.

The new Civil Code, which is discussed in detail under Articles 15 and 16, has taken a new approach to the family and women’s role within the family, thus targeting the most intimate level where gender discrimination is continually reproduced. With a more simplified and accessible language, the new law establishes equality between the spouses in several ways: the concept of the male head of the conjugal union is replaced by equal partnership where the spouses manage the matrimonial union with equal decision making authority; spouses have equal rights over the family domicile and they have equal representational powers. The concept “illegitimate children”, which was used in the previous law for children born out of wedlock, has been abolished and their custody given to the mother. Minimum age of marriage is raised and equalized for both sexes. The most significant amendment under the new Civil Code is the Regime Regarding the Ownership of Acquired Property as the legal property regime (Articles 218-241). These legislative reforms are further elaborated under Articles 15 and 16 of this report.

The review and reform of the Turkish Criminal Code, under the coordination of the Ministry of Justice, is also currently under way. The DGSPW has submitted its comments to the first draft of the amended law on the basis of a review undertaken by a special commission it established comprising of academicians and non-governmental organizations. The amendments of the Criminal Code have been finalized by the Ministry of Justice and submitted to the Office of the Prime Minister for consideration (see Article 2/g of this report).

The Ministry of Justice drafted a law (Addition of Some Articles to Turkish Criminal Code and Amendment of an Article in the Law to Combat Organized Crime) in conjunction with the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. The law has been adopted by the Parliament on 3 August 2002. The law criminalizes forced work, provision of involuntary services, enslavement like treatment, soliciting organ donation by way of threat, force, pressure and misuse of position, and deceit and exploitation of those who are vulnerable to engage in the smuggling, transporting, detaining and trafficking of women, children and men (see Article 6 of this report).

Law No. 4320 on the Protection of the Family, adopted to curtail domestic violence, became effective on 17 January, 1998. In view of the criticisms and problems encountered in the implementation of the law since its enactment a draft proposal to amend some articles of the law has been prepared and submitted to the Prime Ministry for consideration.

In observance with the principle of women’s equal opportunity in the work place as well as in compliance with EU standards, a draft law has been prepared to regulate and equalize parental leave provisions in the existing social security systems. The draft law stipulates that the spouses may share a six month unpaid leave after delivery. The same right is granted to parents in cases of adoption. The draft law has been forwarded to the Prime Ministry for consideration. Adoption of paternity leave in the law potentially challenges the conventional notion of parenthood and the idea that rearing of children is the natural domain of women. When the law goes into force it will provide couples with alternative ways of organizing their private and work lives, with due consideration for the needs and interests of both women and men. It will also have a positive impact on reducing discriminatory practices in the world of work that often exclude women from employment or promotion since they are perceived by some employers as unreliable workers due to their reproductive functions. Additionally, children growing up in a home environment where reproductive responsibilities are shared by both parents will be socialized into more egalitarian gender roles.

The issue of women’s advancement was part and parcel of the modernization project of the Turkish Republic at its inception. Despite many reforms in that regard, it wasn’t until the 5^th Five Year Development Plan (1985-1990) that women’s status was addressed within development planning. The 8^th Five Year Plan (2001-2005), which contains development strategies, has identified specific measures to be taken for the advancement of women. In this regard, Article 10/e institutes equal opportunity measures for women, particularly in the area of education. Further, in the section on “Legal and Organizational Restructuring”, the Plan outlines the changes to be made in the Turkish Civil Code, in view of the emerging socio-economic challenges. As indicated earlier, the law has been amended and has gone into force on January 1 2002 (refer to Articles 15 and 16 of this report).^.

Advancement of women has become an integral part of subsequent government programmes. For example, the programme of the 57^th. Government, took office after the 1999 general election, states that, “Participation of women in all productive aspects of social and economical life will be encouraged and efforts for the improvement of the status of women will be accelerated”. Likewise, the current Government Programme (58^th Government was established after the 3 November 2002 general election) reiterates the importance of gender equality in all spheres of life and indicates that the implementation of the principles of CEDAW is a priority agenda item in the government’s policy programme.

States Parties shall…ensure;

In Turkey’s 2^nd and 3^rd combined report, the establishment and organization of the DGSPW, as the national mechanism for protection of women against discrimination, was elaborated. Since the last reporting, a draft law on the reorganization of the DGSPW was accepted by the relevant commissions of the parliament; however, no action so far has been taken. The draft bill, foresees the establishment of an Advisory Council for the Status of Women to serve as a mechanism for mainstreaming gender into all governmental plans and programmes. Such a Council, when established, will be instrumental in the establishment of further protective institutions.

The DGSPW, through a draft bill submitted to the Prime Ministry, has proposed a change in the decree on the internal operation of the Parliament to allow for the establishment of a “Commission on Equality between Women and Men”. Currently there are 16 special commissions in the Parliament. If the proposed law is adopted, an institutional mechanism mandated to review all legislation from a gender equality perspective would be operative within the Parliament.

Another progress in this regard, is the work that is under way in the Ministry of Justice towards the establishment of an ombudsman system to oversee claims of individual damage accrued as a result of decisions and practices within the public administration system. The DGSPW has made contributions to this process.

In an effort to disseminate information on and promote the new Civil Code the DGSPW, in collaboration with Governorates, bars association, and women’s NGO’s, held various nationwide meetings during 2002.

The reform of the Turkish Civil Code constitutes a major progress in abolishing discriminatory provision from the law and in introducing an egalitarian understanding to the family and gender relations. Some of these changes have already been mentioned, the main amendments are summarized under Articles 15 and 16 of this report. The new law will not only enhance women’s rights and legal standing but it will also have a long term impact on altering perceptions, customs and practices that constitute discrimination against women.

The process of reform has been instrumental in expanding the gender equality agenda as it has stimulated debates on other relevant issues among law and policy makers and public at large. For instance, a draft bill on the establishment of family courts has been prepared and submitted to the Parliament where it is expected to be adopted shortly. Family courts, when in force, will oversee cases related to the family law and the 1998 law regulating domestic violence. The presence of such specialized courts and corresponding cadre would no doubt strengthen the capacity of the legal system to respond more effectively with regard to the norm of non-discrimination and thus minimize the constraints women encounter in legal transactions.

Further reforms are needed to amend remaining discriminatory provisions from the Constitution, the Criminal Code, the Citizenship Act, the Civil Servants Code, the Labour Code and the Social Security Code. As mentioned above, work is already under way in some of these areas. The proposed changes in the Criminal Code are discussed under 2(g). Other significant initiatives in changing discriminatory provisions are as follows:

The aforementioned Law on Protection of the Family, enacted in 17 January 1998, was a positive step in dealing with issues of violence against women, which is predominantly committed within the family. The recommendations of the Committee to Turkey’s previous report were instrumental in pushing forward the legislation in this regard. Before the adoption of this law, cases involving domestic violence were considered under the general provisions of the Criminal Code. This posed difficulties in the determination and punishment of such crimes due to the fact that the private sphere of the family life remained largely outside of the regulatory mechanisms of the existing legislative framework. Whereas, the new law concerning domestic violence has opened up matters once perceived as private to public concern whereby the offender is subject to various punitive measures. Such as; forcing the offender to abandon the house, confiscation of arms owned by the offender, payment of temporary alimony, ban on disturbing the family through the means of communication devices, and prohibiting the destruction of the possessions of other family members. Violation of these measures would be penalized from 3 to a maximum of 6 months of imprisonment. The law is applicable upon a complaint to the police by the victim or any other person. Since the Law on the Protection of the Family has gone into force, increasing number of cases has been reported. From 1 January 1999 to 31 December 2001, a total of 7613 domestic violence cases reached the courts, of which 7449 have been finalized.

DGSPW has prepared a brochure introducing the provisions of the law and disseminated it nationwide. It is also monitoring the implementation of the law. In this regard, proposed amendments have been submitted to the Office of the Prime Minister for consideration. In addition, on 15 November 2002, the Ministry of Justice has issued a manual by-law, providing guidelines for the interpretation and implementation of the law.

One of the most controversial issues in Turkey in the past decade has been the issue of virginity tests, which is regarded as a gross violation of women’s human rights, her sexuality and Article 17 of the Turkish Constitution. The latter states that, with the exception of medical requirements and circumstances delineated in legislation, no one’s bodily integrity may be violated. Various provisions in the law have been used in the past to justify enforced virginity testing. One such statute has been the Awards and Discipline in the High School Education Institutions of the Ministry of Education, which came into effect on 31 January 1995. The statute stated that the “proof of unchastity” is a valid reason for expulsion from the formal educational system. Virginity testing was often the method by which the necessary evidence was produced. As a result of pressures from women’s groups and public debate, with the recommendation of the DGSPW, the Ministry of Education has removed the reference to “unchastity” from the revised statute on 26 February 2002, thus, eliminating a gross gender based discrimination.

Prior to this, on 13 January 1999, the Ministry of Justice, in response to protests and public pressure, issued a statute banning the bodily examination of women for reasons of disciplinary punishment against their consent or in a manner which will hurt or torment them. The statute eliminated virginity testing by distinguishing it from the legally required vaginal or anal examinations under conditions of rape, sexual conduct with minors, and encouraging or acting as an intermediary for prostitution. In such circumstances, if deemed necessary, the judge may order vaginal or anal examinations without the consent of the woman. However, the judicial decree needs to be accompanied by written approval from the public prosecutor.

Maternity leave and related issues are regulated by the Public Servants Law and the Labour Law. The former grants 3 weeks of leave before the delivery, 6 weeks of paid and a year of unpaid leave after delivery. The Labour Law, on the other hand, grants 6 weeks of maternity leave before delivery, 6 weeks of paid and 6 months of unpaid leave after delivery. A draft law prepared by DGSPW has been submitted to the Prime Ministry that aims to bring about compatibility of rights under the two regulatory mechanisms. Moreover, the draft bill recommends the replacement of maternity leave with parental leave, granting of parental leave rights to parents in situations of adoption and full involvement of the father in the care and raising of the children.

The articles in the Labour Code and other relevant laws, pertaining to job security have been amended and are expected to go into force on 15 March 2003. In accordance with the amendments, work contract cannot be terminated due to membership and participation in unionized activities, taking the employer to court for violation of terms of contract and work regulations. The amended law also protects the employee against all forms of discrimination on the basis of race, sex, marital status, family responsibilities, pregnancy, religion, political opinion and social and ethnic origin. In cases involving termination of a contract, the employer is obligated to provide a written justification of the reasons for the termination and in the event of a dispute, the burden of proof falls on the employer.

States Parties shall……ensure;

1. To repeal all national penal provisions which constitute discrimination against women.

The Ministry of Justice has forwarded a draft bill with amendments to the Criminal Code to the Prime Ministry on 9 October 2002. Among the proposed changes are:

• Acts of torture are defined as independent offences committed by an individual. Such acts that are committed against minors under 18 years of age and against a spouse are considered as factors that intensify the magnitude of the offence, therefore, a ground for heavier penalty;
• Removal of Article 423, which criminalizes the violation of virginity under the pretext of marriage;
• Removal of Article 462, which provides a reduced sentence for the offender of homicide or assault and battery cases that involve adultery or illegitimate sexual intercourse of spouse, sister, brother or other kin, without any reasonable doubt;
• Consideration of “psychological pressure” as act of force in rape or attempted rape cases;
• Defining “crimes against sexual integrity” as crimes against the individual rather than crime against public decency;
• Inclusion of a provision relating to marital rape;
• While punishment of rape varies according to the age of the victim, heaviest penalty is foreseen for sexual crimes committed against children under 12 years of age;
• Removal of distinction based on the marital status of women who are victims of abduction with sexual intend;
• In sexual crimes, the sentence is suspended when the victim marries the offender; but the draft changes this situation and brings the provision that the judge will first listen to the victim and the offender and s/he will only suspend the sentence if he/she is convinced that both of the parties are willing to marry on their free will. When there are more than one offenders and one of them marries the victim, the provision about the suspension of the sentence for the others remain unchanged;
• In crimes of rape, the usage of anything apart from the “sexual extremities” is also considered as rape;
• An article of the Criminal Code pertaining to Crimes against Job and Freedom of Work has been amendment as part of the EU Accession Package, adopted by the parliament on 3 August 2002. With this amendment, detailed regulatory provisions and increased punishment are introduced for organized human trafficking.

The proposed amendments summarized above represent a significant break from the patriarchal understanding of sexuality which is reflected in the current law, where crimes of sexual assault against women and girls are treated as felonies against public decency and family order. By adopting the notions of sexual offences as crimes against the individual, the draft bill will not only enhance justice but it will eventually also contribute towards challenging the notion of honour in Turkish society which is still intimately connected to women’s sexuality and which is a primary factor underlying gender based discrimination.

Reference was made in Turkey’s previous report that, Article 441 in the Criminal Code regulating male adultery was cancelled in 1996 by the Constitutional Court on the ground that it violated the constitutional principle of equality. Since a new law was not prepared within the legal duration of one year, male adultery by default ceased to being a crime under the law. While, on the other hand, adultery of women, regulated by Article 440, remained effective. On 23 June 1998, the Constitution Court annulled the latter, thus correcting the existing inconsistency. Consequently, adultery does not constitute a crime in Turkish law, but it may constitute a ground for divorce according to the Civil Code (Article 161). Filing for divorce on the grounds of infidelity entitles the injured party to claim general damages (Article 174 of the Civil Code).

The development and advancement of women has been part and parcel of the modernization endeavours of the Turkish Republic since its creation. In this process, as described in earlier reports, Turkish women were granted many of their civil liberties relatively early by world standards. As aforementioned, since the 5^th Five Year Development Plan (1985-90), women’s issues have been identified as an independent area of concern for development policy and planning. As discussed under Article 14 of this report, women are defined as priority target groups in development projects to bridge the existing regional and sectoral gaps.

In observance of international standards, Turkey has become party to CEDAW and the Optional Protocol as well as the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and other relevant international agreements, including those related to ILO, OECD, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, among others. Turkey also supports all regional and global equality and human rights initiatives and participates in relevant international platforms.

In November 1997, Turkey hosted the Council of Europe, 4^th European Ministerial Conference for Gender Equality in Istanbul. The theme of the Conference was “Democracy and Gender Equality”. Discussions proceeded within the context of two sub-themes: “Gender Equality as a Basic Criterion of Democracy” and “Achievement of Gender Equality in Democratic Society: the Role of Men”. The Conference ended with the adoption of “Istanbul Declaration” as a contribution to guide gender equality policies.

Turkey supports and participates actively in all initiatives and efforts of the UN General Assembly, Economic and Social Council and the Commission on the Status of Women, to promote and safeguard women’s human rights. In this regard, the DGSPW worked closely with non-governmental organizations in the preparation for the Beijing+5 process. An official delegation, composed of representatives of governmental and non-governmental organizations, actively participated in both the Beijing+5 regional prepatory meeting at ECE as well as the special session of the UN General Assembly on “Women 2000: Gender equality, development and peace in the 21^st century”. The Turkish delegation made significant contributions to the negotiation of the Beijing+5 final outcome document, particularly with regard to issues such as reproductive rights, honour crimes and forced and early marriages.

On 6-9 November 2001, the Directorate General hosted an expert group meeting on “Environment Management and Mitigation of Natural Disasters: a Gender Perspective” in collaboration with the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women. The meeting was held in conjunction with the 46^th session of the Commission on the Status of Women, which took up the issue of natural disasters.

At the national level, one of the most significant contributions to the development and advancement of women has been in the area of generation and dissemination of sex-disaggregated data. State Institute of Statistics is the main agency responsible for statistical data on human resources in Turkey. The database on gender statistics and indicators, which is compiled by the Division of Statistics on Social Structure and Women of the Institute, provides reliable and updated data for policy formulation as well as monitoring and evaluation of development programmes

In 1998, the DGSPW and the Division of Statistics on Women collaborated on a project supported by UNDP to develop a gender statistics and indicators database, focusing particularly on, demography, family structure, education and employment. The database is accessible through the website of the State Institute of Statistics (www.die.gov.tr). In accordance with the recommendation contained in the GOT (Government of Turkey)-UNICEF Cooperation Programme for 2001-2005, work is underway to consolidate the Women Statistics and Indicators database and Children Information Network database to allow for a more efficient monitoring of the compliance with both the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

Parallel to these developments, the State Institute of Statistics is revising its data collection approaches from a gender perspective and developing participatory research and project implementation methodologies.

Reference is made to Turkey’s 2^nd and 3^rd combined report.

See Article 7 of this report for special measures adopted by political parties to enhance women’s political participation.

Provisions for the protection of women workers in the 1475 Labour Law have been expanded and included in the draft Work Law (4857). The draft law stipulates that work contract cannot be terminated due to pregnancy and delivery (Article 18); that direct or indirect discriminatory treatment cannot be applied due to sex and pregnancy (Article 5); that the duration of the legal maternity leave shall be counted as worked time; and that women workers may nurse their baby during work hours (Article 66).

There are specific laws listing the places where women cannot work. Women of all ages cannot be employed to work underground or underwater (Artitcle 72). The law also stipulates that if deemed necessary by a physician, pregnant women shall perform light tasks and this shall not be ground for reduced wage (Article 74).

The law defines the arduous and dangerous work situations (Article 85) and night shift conditions (73) under which women cannot work.. The regulations in this regard shall be determined jointly by the Ministries of Health and Labour and Social Security.

According to the draft law, a worker who encounters sexual abuse or harassment in the work place may terminate her contract without prior notice and be eligible to claim both redundancy payment and general damages. The Criminal Code provides the legal framework within which sexual harassment cases may be pursued in court.

Mainstreaming a gender perspective to all policies, plans and programmes in Turkey is an ongoing endeavour to eliminate prejudices and practices that sustain negative gender stereotyping; however, the process is still in its initial stage. The DGSPW aims at formulating and implementing its programmes and activities in collaboration and coordination with other governmental entities, non-governmental organizations and gender and women’s studies and research centres and programmes within universities as well as other relevant organizations.

DGSPW established communication networks within all relevant ministries in order to promote and encourage gender sensitive policies and programmes throughout the public sector. A good practice that has emanated from this initiative is the creation of status of women focal points within Governor’s offices at the provincial level. Since 1998, although only 14 such focal points have been established and although they are by and large under staffed and under financed, the focal points have been instrumental in decentralizing the gender equality policies and programmes promoted by the national machinery and have become centres through which information becomes disseminated to the periphery, thus contributing to gender sensitization in eliminating negative stereotypes about women in the more traditional provincial areas.

Academic institutions, particularly through the activities of gender and women’s studies programmes and centres, play a major role in shaping public opinion regarding human rights and equality of women. Basically there are two types of such entities within the universities: (i) inter-disciplinary graduate programmes, which undertake research and offer masters degrees on women’s studies. Currently there are four graduate programmes in various universities in the country; (ii) research and implementation centers for women’s problems, which in addition to degree programmes also offer training programmes. Since mid-90’s, the number of such centers has reached 14. The Higher Education Council has been actively promoting the creation of such centers in the universities. DGSPW provided financial support to the establishment of some of these programmes/centers.

These academic entities provide gender sensitive education to young professionals, generate knowledge on status of women and gender relations, mainstream a gender perspective within academia, contribute to policy formation, organize training workshops and seminars for public and private actors involved in women’s issues, such as the security forces, legal personnel, members of non-governmental organizations, among others, and through advocacy raise consciousness in society about women’s human rights and equality. Some of the faculty in these institutions are actively involved in the international gender platform, thus contributing to the global gender agenda and also facilitating the domestic compliance with international gender equality norms. Through their personal research, publications and participation in international conferences, the feminist academics contribute to the literature both in terms of theory, method and the specifics of the situation of women in Turkey.

The women’s research and training programmes and centers are encountering financial bottlenecks. They rely mainly on multilateral and lateral donor funds to undertake projects and other extra-curricular activities. DGSPW, itself funded to a large extent by external sources, has extended financial support to research and training activities of these academic institutions. The technical support of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been a major source of funding that enabled the Directorate General to support such initiatives over the years.

The media continues to produce and perpetuate sex role stereotyping that is discriminatory towards women. Aside from objectifying women’s body, the media represents men and women in their conventional sex roles, where women are often projected as de-sexualized mothers and household managers, and men as professionals and the representatives of power and authority.

However, with the maturation of the women’s movements after 1990s and the impact of the national machinery for women as well as the women’s studies programmes, sexism in media – both in terms of representation of women and participation of women as professionals in the various media organizations – has become more visible and a topic of debate and research. The number of scholarly publications and student dissertations that analyze the sexist codes in the production of news, advertisements etc., in print and visual media has systematically increased, giving the issue greater visibility. The increased visibility of the problem of sexism in the media must also be attributed to role of the magazine Monday, a Newspaper for Women, which is published since 1995 by the Foundation for Woman, Culture and Communication. Unlike the short lived experiences of other feminist publications, Monday succeeded in maintaining a bi-monthly publication since 1995 and became the first and only feminist publication with a nationwide distribution network.

The fact that women are grossly unrepresented in the various sectors of the media also contributes to the persistence of sexism of the sector. However, with the increase in the number of private media companies during the last decade, the number of women working, particularly in the TV and movie industry, has increased. Yet, proportion of women in managerial positions is still at insignificant levels. Sex-disaggregated data on employees in the different sectors of the media is scarce. Therefore, reference can be made to only some fragmented sources of information. For example, women held only 1,873 of the 11,322 yellow ID cards given to journalists on June 2000; in the autonomous Turkish Radio and Television Institution (TRT), women make up 2,030 of the 8,180 personnel, and 116 of the 214 managerial posts. In the latter, women are concentrated mainly in middle management and they make up only 1 % of the high-level management posts. The annual ratio of women oriented programmes on TRT television channels is 6.9 %, and on the radio channels it is 15-17%.

Violence against women is an important issue that effects, directly or indirectly, large segments of the society and urgent measures are required to curtail and eliminate it. The persistence of violence can be attributed to many factors, including difficulties in the implementation of laws and regulations that prohibit such acts, lack of awareness and knowledge of the existing regulations and mechanisms, lack of effective measures to deal with the underlying causes of the problem and provocative role the media continues to display in covering acts of violence.

Among the existing support and aid mechanisms for women subject to violence, the following are most noteworthy:

(1) Counseling Centres and Shelters

The issue of violence against women became a public agenda item thanks to the efforts of the women’s movement in Turkey. Through extensive no violence campaigns and women’s human rights advocacy, they played an important role in increasing public awareness on violence against women as well as in informing women of the availability of the existing laws and mechanisms in this regard.

Non-governmental organizations, as part of their mandate to eliminate violence against women, conduct research and gather data on violence and develop problem solving strategies to respond to physical, psychological, social, financial and legal problems arising as a result of incidence of violence. Within this context, they provide counselling services and shelter for battered women. While two women’s shelters that were opened by NGO’s had to close down due to financial constraints, the number of NGO counselling centres increased from 3 in 1995 to 8 in 2000. On the other hand, guidance and counselling services are also offered by the Provincial Social Services Directorates of the 81 provinces as well as by the DGSPW.

The DGSPW and the Directorate General of Social Services and Child Protection Institute (SHÇEK) are mandated to develop national policies and plans for governmental services and programmes to eradicate violence against women and children.

The SHÇEK provide services for battered women or those who are at risk of encountering violence through the guest houses for women. While the numbers of the women’s guest houses are limited, they do provide sanctuary and therapeutic services to women and their children, if any, within the confines of the budget allocations. Eight of the nine guest houses for abused women, are operated by the SHÇEK. From 1995 to 2002, total of 3,139 women and 2,609 dependant children were housed in these shelters and 541 women were placed in a job. A municipality in Istanbul operates one women’s guesthouse.

In addition, women and girls who are subject to violence are also reached through various community centres, family consultation centres, daycare centres, orphanages, rehabilitation centres, retirement houses, among others, where they also provide support in kind and in cash. Shelter for abused women is relatively a new initiative in Turkey, particularly for the public sector. Work is under way to enhance and expand the capacity of shelters, including housing for under-aged and unwed mothers. Furthermore, a direct phone line for women is currently in service in 21 provinces, providing psychological, legal and financial counselling for battered women or those who are under threat of violence.

Similar services to assist female children, who have encountered physical, emotional or sexual abuse, have not yet been institutionalized. Further work needs to be done in this regard.

(2) Education and Training

Training of security forces, health care personnel and other public servants who deal with women subjected to violence, and educating women and girls of their legal rights is another high priority goal in the fight against violence against women. The DGSPW, aside form its own programmes, also collaborates with NGOs working in this field. In this context, 14 spot videos and 3 short movies about violence against women and centres for battered women have been prepared.

The SHÇEK has also undertaken training programmes in collaboration with non-governmental organizations. Since 1998, half day weekly courses on women’s human rights are offered for three month periods, which aim to increase the awareness of women and girls of their rights and enhance their self image and capacity for self protection. Other training programmes include Mother-Child Education Programme (since 1995), Adult Literacy Programme and Father Support Programme, both launched on 14 May 1998.

Since 1999, there has been an extensive effort, on the part of the government as well as NGO’s, to open a public debate on the issue of honour crimes. In this regard, various expert panels have been organized to discuss this most violent act committed under the pretext of culture and the insufficiencies in how the legal system handles such phenomenon. On 25 November 2000, International Day against Violence against Women, a panel discussion was organized in the Southeast Anatolian Region, –where honour crimes continue to find cultural legitimization. Proceedings of the panel discussions have been published and disseminated to all public authorities, universities and made available to others upon request. It is also worth mentioning that sensitivity towards honour crimes in the media has recently become quite pronounced. Incidents of honour crimes are extensively covered and reported on the front page of newspapers.

Since 1998, women’s NGO’s have been organizing an annual Congress on Shelter for Women to raise public awareness of the importance of shelters as institutional mechanisms in the fight against violence against women, to mobilize support for the establishment of shelters and counselling centres for women who are victims of violence. Governmental organizations also participate in these meetings.

Education and counseling activities are also provided by the commissions on women’s legislation which are organized within the bars associations in 28 provinces. In May 1999, these commissions set up the Turkish Bars Women’s Commissions Network, in order to work more effectively. Educational and counselling activities and identifying gender discriminatory provisions in regulatory mechanisms and initiating corrective measures, are among the activities of the commissions on women’s legislation.

The SHÇEK is mandated to provide, needy children and families, support in kind or in cash, daycare centres, orphanages, foster family and adoption services, children and youth centres for street children and care and rehabilitation centres for handicapped children. In this context, 84 daycare centres and 104 orphanages serve approximately 18,000 children. In addition, counseling, education and rehabilitation services are available for working and/or street children and their families in 22 Child and Youth Centres. Within the same context, work is under way to establish a special centre for girls engaged in prostitution.

In 1998, the Family Research Institute, another public sector institution, initiated a Mother-Father School Project, which offers seminars to parents on raising and education of children, parental roles and attitudes and consciousness raising on, diverse issues, including early marriages, marriage among relatives, negative attitudes towards girls, drug and substance use, pregnancy, infertility, pre-natal care, infant and child care, adolescence, adulthood, ageing, personality development, sexuality, and impact of divorce and domestic conflicts on children, etc. These seminars were broadcasted on public TV for a month, thus reaching a larger segment of the population.

Global restructuring has uprooted people from their conventional sources of livelihood around the world. In the process, many women became pushed into prostitution as a source of earning a living. Transnational crime networks have capitalized on prostitution as a lucrative business organized across national borders. As a result, increasing number of women and girls are trafficked all over the world for purposes of sexual exploitation by these networks. In the past two decades, Turkey has become both a transit and a target country for such prostitution. This poses serious problems from the point of view of public order, human rights of trafficked women and spread of sexually transmitted disease, among others.

The process, which initially started in the form of “luggage trade”, that is to say, foreign women entering the country as a tourist to buy and sell goods, quickly turned into organized forms of activities, including prostitution. Easy access to Turkish citizenship of a foreign woman marrying a Turkish man led to arranged marriages, which allowed trafficking rings to operate with ease in Turkey. However, this situation eventually became a public concern which has prompted the authorities to amend the citizenship law (see Article 9 of this report).

The fact that Turkey does not have special regulatory mechanisms and the standards required to combat human trafficking makes it an easy target. Furthermore, the lack of effective punitive regulations and measures, the inadequacy of legal brothels and societal taboos with regard to sexuality are factors that account for the increase in transnational forms of prostitution.

Trafficking in women for purposes of sexual exploitation and transnational prostitution are dealt with in reference to the existing the articles of the Criminal Code that regulates prostitution and the law on foreign nationals. Both legislative frameworks, however, are limited in scope and fall short of addressing the issue in a comprehensive manner.

Prostitution, or sex work, is legal in Turkey only if it is licensed. All provisions of the Criminal Code regulating sex work and the establishment of brothels define sex workers only as women. Women working in brothels are also covered by the social security system. Brothel owners are responsible for taking the necessary measures to prevent sexually transmitted diseases in accordance with the Public Health Law. While, sex work is legal, forcing women into prostitution and inciting and instigating prostitution is illegal and this is regulated in Articles 420, 435 and 436 of the Turkish Criminal Code.

According to Article 436, if somebody rapes, supplies, dispatches or transports a virgin or a woman younger than 21 years old on behalf of another and with the purpose of initiating prostitution, he or she is liable to prosecution even if the woman concerned gives her consent. The same offence is punished if it is committed against a virgin or a woman older than 21 years old by using force and violence or by threat or deception.

According to the Turkish Passport Law 5682 (Article 8, paragraph 6) prostitutes, persons who make a living by marketing prostitutes, traffickers in women and all smugglers are not allowed to enter Turkey.

Law number 5683, on Travel and Residence of Foreign National in Turkey, authorizes the Ministry of Internal Affairs to deport foreigners who are believed to be dangerous to public security and those who act in violation of political and administrative necessities. Article 7 of the same law, states that foreigners who behave in contradiction with social traditions and laws of the country will not be allowed to reside in Turkey.

Therefore, a foreign national who engages in prostitution will not be punished when apprehended but will be subject to medical examination to determine the existence of sexually transmitted diseases, and then deported as prescribed by the law. Deportation is not possible in the case of foreign women who have obtained a Turkish citizenship by way of marriage. A draft bill is before the parliament that introduces a three year waiting period before eligibility of citizenship for a foreign national marrying a Turkish citizen. (Please refer to Article 9 of this report.)

In 2001 the General Directorate of Security has issued a circular indicating that, organized crime groups rather than the victims of trafficking would be pursued and tried in State Security Courts.

As mentioned in Article 1 of this report, the Ministry of Justice in 2002 enacted a law on Addition of Some Articles to Turkish Criminal Code and Amendment of an Article in the Law on Combating Organized Crime as an effort to enhance the implementation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. This law, by defining trafficking in human beings, including women and girls, as criminal act, has partially bridged the legislative gap in the fight against human trafficking and transnational prostitution.

Turkey, as a country of transit and target for transnational human trafficking, particularly women, strongly believes that international cooperation is essential for combating such crimes and in this regard, actively participates in and supports all relevant international initiatives. Turkey, in addition to the above-mentioned Convention and its Protocol, has also signed the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air on 13 December 2000. The Convention and its Protocols are the most comprehensive international documents available for the protection of human rights of victims of human trafficking and in outlining the measures needed for its elimination.

As a result of the recent efforts to curtail human trafficking, including in women, there has been a noticeable decrease in the number of transnational prostitution and an increase in the number of organized trafficking networks that are apprehended. For instance, between 1996 and 2002 total of 23,422 foreign nationals engaged in prostitution have been deported from Turkey and in 2000 and 2001 the number of trafficking organizers apprehended is 850 and 1155 respectively.

Although there are no legal obstacles for the participation of women in formal politics, this has been an area where progress has been slow and insignificant. Nonetheless, an update of the information presented in the previous report with regard to Article 7, will be provided here.

As the women’s movement in the past two decades gained greater public recognition and made an impact on creating a gender equality agenda, political parties became more interested in engaging in and including gender equality issues into their party policy, programmes and election campaigns. While this was perceived to be a good strategy to attract public attention and support, initiatives in this regard did not serve to expand political space for women. For instance, although some parties set quotas for administrative organs of their party, in practice these quotas remained trivial and insufficient in increasing women’s representation in the parliament. Only one party represented in the parliament implemented a 10% quota for women. Other three parties with quotas of 25% to 35 % are not represented in the parliament, therefore, they are ineffective. Quota system has not been used by political parties in determining their candidate lists.

After 1995, with the removal of ban on women’s branches of political parties, these entities became reactivated. However, women’s branches of political parties tend to function as support mechanisms for the mainstream party organization rather than as autonomous political organs to facilitate the empowerment of women and prepare them for active participation. Furthermore, due to the highly centralized and hierarchical structure of the political party system, the parties by laws that regulate women’s branches tend to restrict democratic governance and women’s access to decision making processes. Currently, there is only in one party, where the leadership in the women’s branch is elected to office. Similarly, the women’s political party branches also lack financial autonomy as they neither have an independent budget nor the power to authorize spending.

In the 1999 elections, 23 women were elected to the parliament, increasing women’s representation form 2.4 % to 4 %. In the last election that took place on 3 November 2002, 24 women entered the parliament, bringing the overall percentage to 4.6. Since 1997, number of female cabinet members in the various governments did not exceed two. There is only one minister in the current government.

Women’s representation in local government is also low; although, increases have occurred in the 1999 elections. For example, number of women in mayoral positions increased from 15 in 1994 to 20 in 1999 and over the same period, the number of women in municipal assemblies increased from 338 to 540, and the number of women in Provincial General Assemblies increased from 33 to 44. These figures are quite meager when considered within the overall figures at the national level (6 ‰ for mayor and 1.5 % for all elected women).

The number of women civil servants showed a slight increase over the years, reaching a ratio of 33.1%. According to a 1996 publication, 27.5% of middle and high-level decision making positions within the public administration are women, which is compatible with their overall representation. .

Comprehensive and reliable data on women’s participation in the private sector and other civil organizations is lacking. However, fragmented information based on observations and limited studies show that the situation is not too different from other sectors. Women’s non-governmental organizations have traditionally been concentrated in charity and service oriented activities. Since the mid-1990’s, however, there has been a diversification in the kind of women’s voluntary organizations. Although still in small numbers, there is a visible presence of women’s NGO’s in the area of women’s human rights, operating as advocacy and pressure groups for engendering the public policy, lobbying for legislative change and working towards compliance with international gender equality standards. Thus, there is clear indication that a paradigm shift in the activities of non-governmental organization is taking place. A good practice in this regard, is a campaign initiated by a women’s NGO in collaboration with Ankara University Research and Training Center for Women’s Problems, entitled Gender, Woman and Politics. Within the context of this campaign, the year 2000 was declared as the year of solidarity with women politicians, training material on political participation was produced and 80 trainers and 3,050 women from political parties and NGO’s were given gender training.

Women and men have equal rights to represent Turkey abroad, however, progress in this regard has been slow. A woman in high representational positions in the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs continues to be considerably low. In 2002 there were 10 women ambassadors, 22 undersecretaries, 4 consul generals, 1 vice consul general, and 9 vice consuls.

Representation of Turkish women in international organizations, on the other hand, has been impressive, particularly at the relatively high positions; these are: WHO Headquarters, Executive Director of Family and Reproductive Health (1995-1998); WHO Hq. Political Senior Advisor (1998-2000); WHO Hq., Executive Director for Family and Community Health (October 2000-); Director of INSTRAW at D-2 level (1971-1999); Director of DAW at D-2 level (1999-2001); currently, of the 6 D-1 level posts occupied by Turkish nationals at the UN Secretariat, two are women and 5 of the remaining 9 professional posts held by Turkish nationals are women; a Turkish women also served as a member of INSTRAW Board of Trustees (1995-2001) and its president between 1996 and 1997; currently, another Turkish women is serving on the INSTRAW Board (2001 - ); since 1997 a Turkish woman has been serving as an independent expert on the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and its Deputy Chair since 2001 (she is the second Turkish women to serve on the Committee). There are a number of Turkish women who serve on various committees and advisory boards of the entities of the UN and the Council of Europe.

Women are also represented on Turkish delegations that attend international and regional meetings. Turkey participated in the General Assembly special session on Beijing + 5 as well as its regional meetings, with a high level delegation of women representing both the state as well as the civil society. Likewise, participation of a well composed national delegation, that includes women from civil society, in the periodic meetings of the UN Commission on the Status of Women and the Council of European, Steering Committee for Equality between Women and Men, is always observed.

The Turkish Citizenship Act defines the procedures of acquiring, changing and loosing nationality for women and men. As indicated in Turkey’s 2^nd and 3^rd combined report, there are some provisions in the Citizenship Act that differentiate between women and men who are married to foreign nationals and the right to Turkish citizenship of the latter (Articles 5, 19, 42). With the removal of the reservations to Articles 15 and 16 of CEDAW and the phrase “head of the family” from the Civil Code, amendments in the Citizenship Act have also gained urgency. A new draft law, which removes the existing inequalities, is currently before the parliament for consideration.

According to the draft law, a foreigner married to a Turkish citizen for a minimum of 3 years, will be qualified to apply for citizenship pending approval of the Ministry of Interior. The draft law also stipulates that, citizenship will be granted to the foreign spouse who is stateless or looses her/his native citizenship as a result of this marriage.

9.2. States Parties shall grant women equal rights with men with respect to the nationality of their children.

Reference is made to Turkey’s 2^nd and 3^rd combined report.

Since the previous reporting, Article 66 of the Constitution, which states, “The child of Turkish father or a Turkish mother is a Turk. The citizenship of a child of a foreign father and a Turkish mother shall be defined by law”, was amended in 2001. By the removal of the second sentence from the law, the pre-existing inequality has been eliminated. The change is effective as of 17 October 2001.

Secular education has been a primary and central institution to the process of nation building in Turkey. Consequently, equal opportunities in education, in general, and the education of women, in particular, are secured as legal rights in the law. This is reflected in the Equality of Opportunity section of the Basic National Education Act, which states that, opportunity of education is equal for all women and men and institutions of education are open for everyone, regardless of language, religion, race and sex. Thus, there are no legal impediments to exclude women and girls from accessing the right to education. However, despite considerable progress in women’s education over the years, women and girls lag behind men and boys, at all levels of education. In particular, there are significant discrepancies in the literacy levels of women and men when rural-urban, regional and age differences are considered. According to 2001 data, 21.6 % of women as opposed to 5.6 % of men over 15 years of age are illiterate (Table 1).

Persisting patriarchal values and unfavorable economic conditions adversely affect the educational status of girls. The recent economic crisis and structural adjustment policies have been an impediment to expanding the capacity of the education system. Therefore, funds allocated for education from the national budget declined from 13.2 % in 1990 to 7.2 % in 2000. The impact of the budget cuts on access to education was considerable, disproportionately effecting women and girls from low income families.

The compulsory basic education in Turkey increased from 5 to 8 years of schooling in 1997 (Law 4306), consolidating primary and middle schools into one level of schooling. It was assumed, that the education reform act would have a positive impact on girls’ educational attainment and their life long prospects, thus contribute towards the overall empowerment of girls and delay early marriages. Furthermore, the fact that branching to vocational technical education would be possible at a later age, the alternatives and opportunities for both boys and girls would be significantly enhanced.

It is, no doubt, too early to assess the impact of the 8 year compulsory schooling for girls education, however, according to available data significant increases in schooling rates for girls have occurred. In the last five years, enrollment rates for girls at the primary school level increased by 18 %, at secondary school level by 21 % and for boys the figures are 10 % and 15 % respectively. However, despite these increases, gender discrepancies have not been eliminated. Schooling rates for boys in compulsory basic education is near 99.9 %, but girls lag behind with 88.5 %.

Research conducted in 1999 by State Institute of Statistics, on working children in Turkey reveals a significant discrepancy in schooling rates for boys and girls aged 6 to 17, proportionately increasing at higher age groups and in rural areas (Table 2). The study also shows a strong association between school attendance of girls and boys and cost of schooling. While the families in the higher socio-economic strata tend to place equal value to the education of daughters and sons, at the lower levels, a distinct difference is observed in school attendance for boys (85.6%) and girls (76.5). Although, economic factors constrain school attendance of both boys and girls, the situation is more pronounced in the case of girls, particularly in rural areas (Table 3). The study also reveals that negative cultural values towards girls’ education and lack of motivation on the part of the girls, particularly in rural areas, unavailability of a proper school, requirements to help with household chores are among other factors that account for the lower levels of school attendance for girls.

Ministry of Education in collaboration with non-governmental and international organizations have undertaken a number of projects that aim to enhance the full implementation of the 8 year compulsory basic education act, with special emphasis on raising awareness of the importance of girls’ education, reducing gender and regional gaps in access to schooling, among others. In rural areas where the capacity of schools in small and remote villages could not be upgraded from 5 to 8 years or where schools have closed due to migration, the Ministry of Education provides bussing for students to the nearest center (a practice that exists since 1991). Alternatively, students in remote areas may attend regional boarding schools. In order to encourage families to send their daughters to attend these boarding schools, sex-segregated schools are also available. Additionally, in view of the cultural constraints over the physical mobility of girls in rural areas, “open primary school centers” have been established. A number of non-governmental organizations, including women’s organizations offer various types of scholarships and assistance to encourage families to send their daughters to school.

Parallel to the developments in primary school education, secondary school attendance of girls is also on the rise. The share of female students in general lycees increased from 42.9 % in the 1996-1997 academic year and to 45.2 % in 1999-2000. Although, high school education is not compulsory, in accordance with the 8^th Five Year Development Plan (2001-2005) and decisions adopted by the National Education Congress, proposals are on the table to increase compulsory basic education to 12 years.

On the other hand, gender discrimination, manifesting in terms of educational segmentation, is most vividly observed in vocational and technical high schools. This situation emanates from the nature of the structure of these types of schools, whereby students are directed to schools that provide traditional male and female occupational training. There are 1,196 Technical High Schools for Boys and 636 Technical High Schools for Girls. This segmented structure is defended on the grounds that it may provide girls from conservative families’ easier access to education and offer a special niche for girls, thus serving as a sort of a quota system. This view may be partially supported by the fact that, while the proportion of female students in regular high schools increased by 3.97 % between 1993 and 1996, the increase is 29.9% for vocational technical schools during the same period.

Since 1975, it has been possible for a student of the opposite sex to attend these sex-typed technical schools. Although, sex-segregation is still observed, some encroachment does takes place. For instance, the proportion of male students in the technical schools for girls is 18.4 %, this figure is 10.3 % for girls in the schools for boys. In absolute terms this translates to 39,542 girls and 28,100 boys attending the schools designed to the opposite sex. This is significant in revealing that traditional gender norms and values can in fact be contravened.

A striking development, worth mentioning, is the high rate of attendance of female students (45.8 %) in Imam Hatip Schools which mainly provide training for religious professions, open only for men. While the attendance of girls in these schools shows a steady increase, the reverse is true for boys. During the 1993-94 academic year the increase rate for girls attending the Imam Hatip Schools was 18.8 %, in 1996-1997 it increased to 21.8% and 21.3 % in 1999-2000. For boys the figures are 20.4 %, 18.3 % and 12.6 %, respectively. While, in terms of educational attainment, the increasing enrollment of girls in these schools may be perceived as a positive indicator, issues with regard to the extent to which such an education will offer girls into non-traditional gender roles and increase their options for employment need to be seriously considered.

Access to university education, in Turkey, is gained through a competitive national Student Selection and Placement Exam. Performances of girls in these exams in the recent years have been impressive. In 1999 placement ratios for girls was 55.2 % and for boys 56.9 % and in 2000, girls slightly surpassed boys. However, total number of female students in higher education is still less than male students. During the 2001-2002 academic year 41.8 % of the university students were female. However, in provincial universities, female enrollment during the same period was only 37.7%. Participation of women in higher education institutions is highest in the two-year degree programmes of Open University (49.3%). Female participation rates are considerably lower than that of males at the graduate school level.

With the exception of technical disciplines and agriculture, female participation in higher education has showed a steady or a stable increase over the years. While they show comparable rates to males in areas such as natural and applied sciences, and mathematics, they exceed males in languages, educational sciences and the arts (Table 4). Despite the presence of relative gender equality at the level of higher education, on the whole, higher educations in Turkey is still a privilege accessible by a small portion of the population, within which men outnumber women.

States Parties shall…..ensure;

b) Access to the same curricula, the same examinations, teaching staff with qualifications of the same standard and school premises and equipment of the same quality;

All schools, at the primary and secondary school levels, are subject to the same curricula and rules and procedures, which are regulated by the Ministry of Education. Quality of education, no doubt, cannot be claimed to be the same across schools, significant regional and rural-urban differences exist.

The Ministry of Education, in compliance with the law, operates free Regional Boarding Primary Schools to ensure that children of low income families and those living in remote areas are not deprived of their right to education. The numbers of such schools have increased from 153 in 1997 to 513 in 2000. 35.5 % of student body in boarding schools are girls. Female students who successfully graduate from primary boarding schools but cannot afford to continue their education are offered an opportunity to attend vocational boarding high schools free of charge.

The sex structure of the teaching staff resembles that of the student body. That is to say while female teachers comprise a large percentage of the teaching staff at initial stages of schooling, the proportion declines with higher levels of education. Similar discrepancies are observed according to rural-urban and regional distributions. These discrepancies have far reaching implication for the school enrollment of girls in the more traditional remote parts of the country.

However, at the higher education level, proportion of female academic staff has traditionally been high by world standards. According to 2001-2002 academic year data, women constitute 36.7 % of academic staff, varying by rank: 36.1 % of instructors; 29.5 % of assistant professors; 31.5 % of associate professors and 24.7 % of full professors (Table 5). Sex differentiation of academic staff also varies according to areas of specialization, showing a parallel situation to that of the university student body, as presented above. The presence of relatively high percentage of women in the academia is not reflected in the university administrative structure. Positions of faculty deanships and university presidencies continue to be occupied overwhelmingly by men.

(c) The elimination of any stereotyped concept of the roles of men and women at all levels and in all forms of education by encouraging coeducation and other types of education which will help to achieve this aim and, in particular, by the revision of textbooks and school programmes and the adaptation of teaching methods;

Gender biases and sex-role stereotyping continue to be reflected in the content of education curricula and teaching material. In order to eliminate gender biased messages from the educational curricula, the DGSPW included the issue in its work programme for 2000-2001 and in this context, supported relevant research projects, and the publication and dissemination of their outcomes.

The Ministry of Education, within the framework of reorganization of its working methods and procedures, has also identified the achievement of gender equality among its priorities. In this regard, considerable progress has been achieved in integrating a human rights perspective, particularly of women and children, into course programmes and in the process of reviewing textbooks with the view to eliminating discriminatory statements, images, and the like.

In addition, a number of projects have been launched to raise awareness on democracy and good governance. Most notable in this regard, is the Education in Democratic Citizenship project undertaken within the context of collaboration among member states of the Council of Europe. The project emphasizes the importance of gender equality and women’s equal participation in decision making processes.

In accordance with a protocol signed between the State Ministry Responsible for Human Rights and Ministry of Education concerning teaching of human rights in schools, weekly curriculum of the 7^th and 8^th grades of the primary schools was revised in the academic year 1998-1999 so as to include the “Civic and Human Rights Education Course” one hour per week. Also since 1999, an elective course on “High School Democracy and Human Rights” is offered. In 1998, a National Committee on the Decade for Human Rights Education was established in order to implement the United Nations Decade on Human Rights Education (1995-2004). Among the documents made available in the courses other human rights initiatives are: the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; a list of non-governmental organizations working in the field of human rights and relevant documents on their activities.

Commissions responsible for the review of textbooks from the point of view of human rights and gender equality, do so in view of the principles of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Woman and the criteria established by the National Committee on the Decade for Human Rights Education. Among the criteria used are: observance of equal number of male and female characters in the textbooks; representation of male and female characters displaying mutual respect and equal treatment; representation of gender equality in the division of labour at home and at work; representation of women in the public sphere assuming unconventional roles in decision making and management positions; and gender balance in projecting parental roles and responsibilities.

During the 16^th National Education Congress authorities were urged to encourage female students to apply for the exams for state scholarships and free boarding schools and urged the authorities to waive the exam fees for girls.

The distribution of scholarships of the Ministry of Education for primary and high school students shows that female students use around 36.3 % of the scholarships.

In 2001, 44.4 % of applications for student credit from the Credit and Hostels Institute were received from girls. Girls received 55.1 % of the amount that was dispersed. This represents an increase over the previous years. Similarly, 44.5 % of the students who were granted space in student housing under the authority of the Credit and Hostels Institute were girls. On the other hand, only 26 % of the private boarding facilities available for high school and university students were allocated for female students during the 2000-2001 school year.

States Parties shall….ensure;

(e) The same opportunities for access to programmes of continuing education including adult and functional literacy programmes, particularly those aimed at reducing, at the earliest possible time, any gap in education existing between men and women;

In order to bridge the gap in the male-female literacy rates and give adults the opportunity to pursue their education, the Ministry of Education offers various services. Distance education is one such service which allows school dropouts to finish their degrees and encourages them to continue to higher levels of schooling. In this context, in 1997 with the adoption of the 8 year compulsory basic education act, system of Open Schools was instituted. By 2001-2002 total of 90,906 women benefited from open primary schools, constituting 41.4 % of the total. Parallel to this, 32.6 % of those graduating from the Open Education High School and 30% of the Open Education Vocational and Technical Schools were women. Similarly, in 7 provinces there are several Open Education Centers for Girls, established to provide educational opportunities for girls in rural areas.

In addition to formal education opportunities, there are various informal adult education programmes for men and women that aim to improve literacy, awareness in citizenship and civic rights and responsibilities, vocational skills, among others. 73 % of those who attended the 237,284 courses offered since 1996 were women. However, women participants, by and large, chose to attend home economics, handicrafts and Koran courses and to a lesser extent, literacy courses. In the 34,801 literacy courses offered from 1995 to 2002, 398,329 women (52% of the total participants), became literate. This represents a significant increase over the previous period (1990-1995) where women (72,680) constituted 36% of those who attended the 7,462 courses offered.

The Support for National Education Campaign, which was launched in 2001, as a the collaborative effort of governmental and non-governmental organizations and the universities, to offer literacy, vocational and socio-cultural courses in Eastern and Southeastern regions of Turkey. Women made up, 62%, 62.4% and 52.9% respectively, of the participants in these courses.

Another initiative targeting the women in eastern part of the country is the Multipurpose Community Centers (ÇATOM’s), established by the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) Administration. The aim of the ÇATOM’s is to integrate women in the development process in the GAP by empowering them through various training opportunities, ranging from literacy, technical skills, handicrafts to leadership skills, giving visibility to the needs and problems of women in the society and enhancing their income earning capacities. Women between the ages 14 to 50 benefit from these centers.

Another regional project is the Project for Supporting Social Development and Employment in East and Southeast Anatolia Region, which is active in 26 locations in the regions. The project started in October 2000 to deal with the educational needs of poor adults, particularly women. Total of 283,906 women and 204,201 men attended the courses offered in 2001.

The Centers for the Research and Implementation on Problems of Women, discussed under Article 5/a also offer adult education activities.

The Vocational and Technical Training Project (METGE), which was launched in 1994, has continued to provide training to enhance employment opportunities for women who never attended a school or had to drop out. In general, women attending METGE courses have tended to concentrate in areas that offer training in traditional female activities. Approximately 100,000 women and girls benefited from this programme between 1996 and 2000.

Sectoral vocational training programmes are also available through various public institutions; most notable are the Turkish Employment Authority and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs. These programmes often involve the partnership of non-governmental organizations and international entities such as UNICEF, FAO